Types of Amnesia 

Memory loss can take the form of amnesia. Some amnesics find it challenging to create fresh memories. Others struggle to recollect details or prior events. People who have amnesia typically still know who they are and their motor skills.

Amnesia is a memory impairment brought on by brain injury, illness, or psychological trauma. Anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia are the two basic categories of amnesia. The inability to recall knowledge that was learned before to a specific date, typically the date of an incident or procedure, is known as retrograde amnesia.

These may include significant life experiences, cherished memories, significant figures, and essential truths we have been given or taught.

Types of Amnesia

Amnesia comes in a variety of forms. Here is a list of some of the more typical ones:

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to recall recent information. Recent events and knowledge that have to be stored in short-term memory vanish. This typically happens after a brain trauma, such as when a hit to the head results in brain damage. The individual will recall information and occasions that occurred prior to the injury.

Retrograde amnesia is somewhat the reverse of anterograde amnesia in that the affected individual can recall events that happened after the trauma but not those that occurred before it. Anterograde and retrograde amnesia can very rarely happen simultaneously.

Transient global amnesia: including the ability to make new memories in some cases of transient global amnesia. The likelihood of this is higher in older persons with vascular (blood vessel) illness and is extremely rare.

Traumatic amnesia: Memory loss occurs after a severe brain injury, such as one sustained in a vehicle accident. The person could briefly lose consciousness or go into a coma. The amnesia is typically transient, although the length of time it lasts typically depends on the severity of the injury. Amnesia is a crucial sign of a concussion.

·       Hysterical (fugue or dissociative) amnesia:  It is extremely rare for someone to lose both their identity and their past. It's possible that when they wake up, they have no idea who they are. They do not even recognise their own reflection when they glance in the mirror. An ID card, credit card, or driver's licence will be useless. It is typically brought on by a situation that the person's mind is unable to adequately handle. Within a few days, the memory normally slowly or unexpectedly returns, but the memory of the frightening experience might never fully return.

·          Childhood amnesia, also known as infantile amnesia, is the inability to recall past events. This condition may result from difficulties with language acquisition or from the brain's memory centres not fully developing while the person is still a child.

       Posthypnotic amnesia: The inability to recollect hypnotic events.

       When someone has source amnesia, they can recall certain facts but not how or from where they learned them.

DSM Criteria

A. The primary disturbance is one or more episodes of amnesia that are too severe to be explained by regular forgetfulness. These episodes typically involve the inability to recall significant personal information and are of a traumatic or stressful nature.

B. The disturbance is not solely caused by Dissociative Identity Disorder, Dissociative Fugue, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Acute Stress Disorder, or Somatization Disorder. It is also not brought on by a neurological or other general medical condition, or by the direct physiological effects of a substance (such as a drug of abuse or medication) (e.g., Amnestic Disorder Due to Head Trauma).

C. The symptoms hinder social, vocational, or other critical areas of functioning or cause clinically substantial distress.

Symptoms

Amnesia is a rare condition.

The following signs of amnesia are typical:

• In anterograde amnesia, the capacity to learn new information is diminished.
• Retrograde amnesia impairs one's capacity to recall prior events and previously known knowledge.
• There could be confusion or disorientation.
• There could be issues with short-term memory, as well as partial or complete memory loss.
• The individual might not be able to place places or identify people.

   Causes

Memory impairment may result from any brain disorder or injury. The process of remembering involves the simultaneous use of numerous brain regions.

Amnesia can result from damage to the hippocampus and thalamus, two brain regions that make up the limbic system, which regulates our emotions and memories.

Medical amnesia

Amnesia brought on by brain damage or injury.

Some causes include:

Stroke

• Brain inflammation known as encephalitis brought on by a bacterial, viral, or autoimmune infection
• A lack of oxygen brought on by, for instance, a heart attack, respiratory problems, or carbon monoxide poisoning
• Certain drugs, including the sedative Ambien
• Subarachnoid haemorrhage, often known as brain bleeding between the skull and the brain,
• A brain tumour that affects the memory-related area of the brain
• There are a few seizure disorders.
• Temporary memory loss may occur as a result of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), often known as electroshock therapy, a type of psychiatric treatment that induces seizures for therapeutic purposes.
• Head injuries can result in temporary memory loss, though this is not always the case.

 

Psychological amnesia

This is brought on by an emotional shock and is also referred to as dissociation amnesia, such as:

• a crime with violence
• Sexual or other forms of maltreatment
• Conflict in the armed forces
• a disaster of the natural kind
• a terrorist incident

Any unbearable life circumstance that results in intense psychological stress and internal strife can create amnesia to some extent. Instead of interfering with the formation of new memories, psychological stressors are more likely to disturb existing, intimate memories.

Treatment

Amnesia typically goes away on its own without any medical assistance. However, therapy can be required if there is an underlying physical or mental condition.

Some patients can benefit from psychotherapy. Memories that have been forgotten may be recalled with success through hypnosis.

Family assistance is essential. Music, fragrances, and images could be helpful.

Techniques and ideas to aid with memory impairment are frequently used in treatment.

This may involve:

Collaborating with an occupational therapist to learn new information to supplement lost memories or to build on already-learned material to learn new information.

Acquiring techniques for information organisation to make it simpler to store.

Making use of technological tools, like cellphones, to assist with daily duties and remind patients of significant occasions, when to take medications, and other such reminders. A contact list featuring pictures of people's faces could be useful.

For amnesia-related memory loss, there are currently no medications available.

A thiamin (vitamin B1) shortage can cause memory loss in Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome or malnutrition, thus tailored nutrition can be beneficial.

Objective Vs Projective Test 

Psychological tests measuring a person’s characteristics independently of the taker’s bias or personal beliefs. Such tests typically yield more accurate results than self-reporting or projective models, which reveal unconscious perceptions.

Example: A psychologist gives a test composed primarily of rating scales and true-false questions. 

It is intended to minimise subjectivity or bias on the part of the person administering the measure so that administering and interpreting the results do not depend on the examiner's judgement. Objective tests are measures in which responses maximise objectivity, in the sense that response options are structured such that examinees have only a limited set of options (e.g., Likert scale, true or false).

Although the term ‘objective test’ encompasses a wide range of tests with which most people are somewhat familiar (i.e. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Graduate Record Examination, and the Standardized Achievement Test), it is a term that arose out of the field of personality assessment, as a response and contrast to the growing popularity of tests known as projective tests. These ‘projective tests’ require examinees to generate unstructured responses to ambiguous tasks or activities, the content of which is supposed to represent their personal characteristics (e.g. internal attitudes, personality traits).

However, the distinction between objective and projective tests is misleading, as it implies that objective tests are not subject to the influence of bias. Although the fixed response style of objective tests does not require interpretation on the part of the examiner during the administration and scoring of the measure, responses to questions are subject to the examinee’s own response style and biases, in much the same way they are for projective measures; therefore, both test ‘types’ are vulnerable to subjective factors that may affect scores. Additionally, the examinee's personal history, any current worries, and the plethora of variables that can influence the examinee's scores on the assessment are taken into account when interpreting the results of any assessment, projective or objective alike. As a result, both projective and objective exams have the potential to introduce bias and, to varied degrees, depend on interpretation judgement. The advantages of a particular usage of test scores should be assessed rather than categorising tests based on overt but superficial test characteristics.

Merits of Objective Type Test:

1.             A greater sampling of the content is possible with an objective type test.

2.             It can be scored objectively and easily. The scoring will not vary from time to time or from examiner to examiner.

3.              This test reduces

     (a) The role of luck and

     (b) Cramming of expected questions. As a result, there is greater reliability and better content validity.

4.               These questions are more effective at motivating people.

5.       It is time-efficient because answering it takes less time than an essay test. Comparatively, pupils can be shown a lot of exam items. Additionally, it saves the scorer time.

6. Eliminating elements like writing speed, expressive fluency, literary style, readable handwriting, neatness, etc. that are superfluous or extraneous.

7. It gauges the more sophisticated mental functions of comprehension, application, analysis, forecasting, and interpretation.

8.              It permits stencil, machine or clerical scoring. Thus scoring is very easy.

Limitations of Objective Type Test:

1. It is impossible to evaluate objectives like the capacity to organise information, the capacity to deliver information clearly and coherently, etc.

2. Making educated guesses is possible. Including a lot many stuff will undoubtedly decrease your chances of success.

3. The outcome could be deceptive if a respondent stamps every response as correct.

4. The objective test items are tough to construct, but they are simple to answer.

5. They demand more analysis than synthesis, which brings us.

6. The test does not at all test linguistic proficiency.

7. Printing is far more expensive than an essay test.

 

Projective Test

Projective test content is evaluated for meaning rather than being scored to a single standard as with an objective personality test. Projective personality tests claim to be able to gauge elements of your unconscious mind such personality traits, worries, doubts, and attitude. Some employers utilise this kind of testing to determine whether you are a good fit for their workplace. This approach of testing was developed by Francis Galton. In 1897, he carried out his first experiment, which involved picking a few words and allowing his mind to freely associate them.He then took the words that he generated in reaction to the original list and put them into new classifications which led think more about the possibilities of sub-consciousness and thought.

Example: The Rorschach inkblot test, where subjects are asked to describe what they see in ambiguous images, is the best-known projective personality test.

A personality test used in psychology is the projective test. This exam is carried out to comprehend the person's stimuli. In addition, the exam shows several forms of a person's concealed emotions; it also aids in understanding a person's internal issues. The objective test or a self-report test are other names for this.

The responses received from this test are properly analyzed by the experts – the presumptions are analyzed on the basis of a universal standard.

The projective tests are done under the assumption that humans have conscious and unconscious motivation and attitudes.

1. It maintains conscious and unconscious constraints:

The test confirms that every person has different demands, both conscious and unconscious. The projective tests can be used to comprehend these needs. The notion that these projective assessments may lean more toward personality is one that is frequently held. This is why it primarily addresses both conscious and unconscious components of natural human behaviour.

2. It results in spontaneous outcomes:

The person's requirements emerge organically; they are not edited in any way. It is a true representation of a person's cognitive process. Because of this, these projective tests capture the majority of unplanned actions taken by people. Additionally, it depicts the person's demands and desires clearly when they are in the midst of an emotional crisis roller coaster rides.

3. It depends upon non-verbal communication:

The subject of the test is not required to provide verbal information for the test. The person's spontaneous statements made while administering the tests are used to confirm the results.

In plainer language, it is possible to comprehend the genuine personal behaviour. Thus, it is one of the most nonverbal forms of communication wherein individuals express themselves, and which may be influenced by actions, responses, and attitudes.

4. Motivational barriers:

This investigation comprehends every personality reaction's outcome. Most significantly, all of the drives, precepts, and attitudes are easily discernible. And for that reason, adding obstacles to motivation can raise the stakes for this projective test hypothesis.

Types of Projective Tests:

There are various types of projective tests which are carried out on the individuals depending upon the needs of the person.

1. Rorschach test

2. Holtzman Inkblot test

3. Thematic Apperception Test

4. Behavioral test

5. Graphology

6. Sentence completion test:

7. The Draw-A-Person Test

8. The House-Tree-Person Test

 

Advantages of Projective Tests:

Since the findings of projective tests can differ from a person's personality, they have sparked several arguments and conflicts among professionals. But the truth is that these tests have, for the most part, come back positive. The results of this test have benefited a lot of people.

The specialists were able to assist the client in altering their behaviour and adopting a positive outlook on life. There are numerous assumptions that might be considered while doing projective testing.

Projective tests have created many debates and controversies among the experts – because at times the results may vary as compared to the personality of the person. But the fact is that these tests have proved to be positive to a large extent. There are many persons who have been benefitted because of this test.

Because they have a very common and straightforward manner of expressing their personality. Therefore, before making a final judgement, it is vital to comprehend the concept of projective tests.

People may experience various changes in their characters. And those personalities could completely mislead them.

To be clear, projection test includes a section for personality research. This section on personality studies explains the purpose of these projection tests in more detail.

Therefore, it is assumed that in terms of their visual restrictions, the projection test is superior to the stimulus.

The outcome of any form of test or examination will typically depend on the response and reflection of human behaviour. Fortunately, these projection tests led to a distraction where all of the respondent's test findings were taken into account as advantages for their own purposes. As a result, a response can better appreciate the facts and advantages of these projection tests thanks to them.

The person is unaware of what they are disclosing during the projective tests because of these tests. And all of the respondents cited it as one of the main advantages.

When performing a projective examination, the examiner's or expert's age is also taken into account. During such tests, special instructions and hints are given. As a result, projection tests' extra advantages might be used to comprehend typical human behaviour.

 What is Psychology? 

What is Psychology?

The scientific study of the mind and behaviour is called psychology. Psychology is a multifaceted discipline that covers many subfields such as human development, sports, health, clinical, social behavior, and cognitive processes.

History of Psychology

Philosophy and biology were the ancestors of early psychology. These two topics have been discussed at length as far back as the early Greek philosophers Aristotle and Socrates.

Greek term psyche, which means "life" or "breath," is the root of the English word "psychology." The word can also be derived to signify "self" or "soul."

The study of the human mind and behaviour is known as psychology. In Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt built the first laboratory for experimental psychology. There are numerous schools of thought in psychology, some of which have temporarily taken over as the dominant ones.

Structuralism: The first school of thought was structuralism, developed by Wundt and Titchener, but others soon followed.

Functionalism: William James, a pioneering psychologist and philosopher, was connected to the functionalism school of thought, which emphasized the function of human awareness and action.

Psychoanalysis: These early schools of thought quickly gave way to a number of dominant and influential methods of psychology, including psychoanalysis. The focus of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis was on the influence of the unconscious mind on human behaviour.

Behaviorism: The behavioural school of thinking aims to make psychology the study of observable behaviours rather than internal factors that impact behaviour.

Humanistic Psychology: Later, the emphasis of the humanistic approach was on the value of self-actualization and personal development.

Cognitive Psychology: In the 1960s and 1970s, the cognitive revolution stimulated research into the inner workings of the mind, including reasoning, decision-making, language acquisition, and memory.

Even though these schools of thought are occasionally seen as rival forces, each one has advanced our knowledge of psychology.

Types of Psychology 

The study of human thought, behaviour, development, personality, emotion, motivation, and more is covered by the large and complex area of psychology. Different subfields and specialization areas have consequently emerged. Some of the most important fields of study and application in psychology are as follows:

Abnormal Psychology: The study of abnormal behaviour and psychopathology is known as abnormal psychology. This specialized field, which is connected to clinical psychology and psychotherapy, focuses on the study and treatment of a wide range of mental diseases.

Biological Psychology: Biopsychology (sometimes known as biological psychology) is the study of how biological processes affect the mind and behaviour. This field, which is closely related to neuroscience, examines brain damage or anomalies using technologies like MRI and PET scans.

Clinical Psychology: Assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental diseases are the main areas of clinical psychology.

Cognitive Psychology: The study of cognitive psychology focuses on how people think, including how they pay attention, remember things, perceive things, make decisions, solve problems, and learn new languages.

Comparative Psychology: The area of psychology that focuses on the investigation of animal behaviour is called comparative psychology.

Development Psychology: The study of human growth and development over the lifespan, including changes in identity, morality, social functioning, and other life domains, is known as developmental psychology.

Forensic Psychology: The goal of forensic psychology is to apply psychological theories and research to the legal and criminal justice systems.

Industrial-organizational Psychology: The area of industrial-organizational psychology makes use of psychological research to improve personnel selection and work performance.

Personality psychology: Personality psychology is concerned with figuring out how personalities form as well as the traits, tendencies, and traits that make each person distinctive.

Social Psychology: Group behaviour, social impacts on personal behaviour, attitudes, prejudice, conformity, hostility, and related themes are the focus of social psychology.

The Goals of Psychology

The four main objectives of psychology are to describe, explain, forecast and change the behavior and mental processes of others.

To Describe

The primary objective of psychology is to describe a behaviour or cognitive process. Researchers may be able to create general laws governing human behaviour as a result.

Ivan Pavlov, for instance, contributed to the development of the laws of learning known as the classical conditioning theory by describing the reaction of dogs to diverse stimuli.

To Explain

The next stage for scholars is to provide an explanation for how or why this tendency arises after describing broad principles of behaviour. Psychologists will put up hypotheses to justify a behaviour.

To Predict

To Predict Psychology aims to predict future behaviour using the findings of empirical research. If a prediction turns out to be incorrect, the underlying reason might need to be altered.

According to classical conditioning, a person may develop a phobia or an aversion to a stimulus if they associate it with a negative outcome.

To Change

Once behaviour has been characterized, clarified, and predicted by psychology, a behaviour can be changed or controlled.

For instance, treatments for anxiety disorders, including phobias, have included classical conditioning-based approaches like systematic desensitization.

How Can Psychology Help People?

In essence, psychology helps people because it explains why they act in specific ways. A psychologist can assist people in improving their decision-making, stress management, and behaviour based on analyzing past behaviour to better predict future behaviour with the use of this kind of expert insight. All of these can support people in having more fulfilling relationships, more self-confidence, and better communication in general.

Recent Developments in Psychology

 Areas include cultural psychology, which borders on anthropology, the psychology of women, African American psychology, and subfields within subfields were created as a result of heightened awareness of the diversity of human experience (e.g., within developmental psychology, the study of aging).Some psychologists have returned to psychology’s roots in philosophy, examining and reflecting on the assumptions and implications of various philosophical and psychological approaches (the subfields of theoretical and philosophical psychology). The proponents of a brand-new field called narrative psychology argue that psychology shouldn't even establish itself as a science and offer techniques more commonly used in literary studies, such looking for themes as people recount their experiences. They rely on ever-evolving laboratory and statistical techniques and consider these as crucial to psychology's scientific foundation.